Optic disc edema: elevated and blurred optic disc margins, reflecting leakage of optic disc capillaries; not seen unless retinal abnormalities are severe
Arteriovenous nicking: indentation and deflection of retinal veins as they cross stiff retinal arterioles
Copper-wiring: shift in color of retinal arterioles from red to orange, as walls thicken and stiffen
Silver-wiring: shift in color of retinal arterioles from red to white, as thickened wall obliterates blood column
Refer patient with newly blurred vision in acute severe systemic hypertension urgently to ophthalmologist
Refer patient without visual symptoms in acute or chronic systemic hypertension to ophthalmologist non-urgently to determine impact of hypertension on eyes as visible target organs
